Limits on Campaign Contributions

So you want to give some money to a political candidate. Maybe your congressman is seeking re-election, or an upstart challenger has decided to run against her in the primary and you want to throw some extra cash to the  campaign. How do you do it? How much can you give?   Related: Can You Recall a Member of Congress? Heres what you need to know before you write that check to your congressmans re-election campaign in the 2013-14 election cycle. Question:  How much can I contribute? Answer: An individual can contribute $2,700 at most to a candidate for federal office in a single election cycle. That means you can give $5,400 to a single candidate in an election year: $2,700 during the primary campaign, and $2,700 more during the general election. Related: How Much Did the 2012 Presidential Race Cost? One way many households get around this limit is by having husbands and wives make separate contributions to a candidate. Even if only one spouse has an income, both householders can write a check for $2,700 to a candidate during a single election cycle. Question: If Ive hit that limit, can I give money to someone else to contribute? Answer: No. Federal election laws prohibit someone who has contributed the maximum amount of money to a candidate in one election cycle from giving money to someone else to give. Also, companies are banned from issuing a bonus to employees for the purpose of writing checks to a candidate for federal office. Question:  Can the candidates spend the money however they wish? Answer:  No. There are some limitations on how candidates can spend money. Generally speaking, candidates are not allowed to spend money contributed to campaign funds for any personal use. The money you give to candidates for political office must be spent on campaign operations, though any money left over after an election may remain in the campaign account or be transferred to a party account, according to Federal Election Commission regulations. Question:  What if Im not at U.S. citizen or dont live in the United States? Answer:  Then you cant contribute to political campaigns. Federal elections laws prohibit campaign contributions from non-U.S. citizens and foreign nationals living in the United States. However, those living in the United States legally - individuals carrying a green card, for example - may contribute to federal political campaigns. Question:  What if I have a contract with the federal government? Answer: You are not allowed to contribute money. According to the Federal Election Commission: If you are a consultant under contract to a Federal agency, you may not contribute to Federal candidates or political committees. Or, if you are the sole proprietor of a business with a Federal government contract, you may not make contributions from personal or business funds. You may make a contribution, however, if youre merely an employee of a firm that holds a government contract. Question:  How do I give money to a candidate? Answer:  There are several ways. You can write a check to the campaign,  contribute via  bank transfer, credit card charge, electronic check and even text message. Question:  Can I use Bitcoins to make a contribution? Answer:  No, even though  Bitcoins  are being used to purchase goods and services across the world, Americans are  not yet permitted to use the electronic currency   to support political campaigns or  committees  at the national level  or give to other organizations that seek to influence  federal elections in the United States. Question: What if I dont want to give money to a candidate? Can I give to a party? Answer: Of course. Individuals are allowed to give as much as $32,400 to national political parties and  $10,000 to state and local parties over the course of a calendar year. Related: How to Start Your Own Super PAC You can also give unlimited amounts of money to super PACs, which raise and spend money independent of political candidates but  advocate nonetheless for  the election or defeat of candidates.

The Endangered Wildlife Trust - 787 Words

Based on the provided case study, â€Å"Stakeholder Management and the Endangered Wildlife Trust†, written by Gavin Price, I will address the following three questions: 1. What are the main issues of the case? 2. What should the CEO do and why? 3. What lessons have you learnt and how could they be used? Looking at the history of the organisation, it has come a long way since 1979 in developing its brand, reputation and presence in the market. However, with a number of factors outside their control, the main issues that the organisation faces are: * Reduced funding from sponsors, organisations and trustees which is a result from the dip in the economy and organisations are faced with the reality to reduce costs * Strategic†¦show more content†¦This will reduce the issues on funding and green-washing * Develop strategic alliances with other organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund in instances where a joint effort would result in an even large reward for the environment and man kind * There are opportunities to introduce subjects around nature conservation as a career option and study choice in primary and high school. With the level of education and pass rate being as low as it is in South Africa, majority of our youth may be deemed unfit for the corporate workplace, bu t it will open doors into nature conservation and the likes. This will in turn reduce the reliance of the lower income earners on grants for basic survival * In-house, the CEO would need to periodically re-evaluate all projects underway to measure its impact to date, irrespective of which stage in the process it may be. This will allow her to make the necessary changes in funding allocation more easily, providing flexibility to change with the times * Branding and advertising has historically been a sponsored output and how much creative input was provided by the CEO is unknown. Competitions, for instance, can be held where a premium SMS can be sent to vote for the best branding, resulting in an improved brand which has been socialised and proceeds from the SMSs can go to implementing selectedShow MoreRelatedEndangered Wildlife Trust - Should the Ceo Change the Ewts Fundraising Strategy1065 Words   |  5 Pages1. Introduction In 2009, the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) was recognised as one of southern Africa’s largest environmental conservation organisations. The non-profit, non-government organisation grew organically over the course of 35 years by broadening its vision to include â€Å"species, their habitats, ecosystems and the role of the surrounding communities and landowners† (Price, 2010). While this assisted in proving the EWT’s commitment to its cause, this diversification put pressure on the limitedRead MoreAnalyzing The Picture From 60 Of The Most Powerful Advertisements891 Words   |  4 Pagesad was produced by the Endangered Wildlife Trust, the ad has many points of ethos examples. The Endangered Wildlife Trust is a non profit organization that helps save animals from getting hurt in their actual environment. Any endangered animal on the multiple pages of the endangered wildlife list they have they will get out to catch the animal to reproduce and provide a safe non e ndangered habitats for the animal. They show the different ways that people hurt these endangered animals and the waysRead MorePersonal Experience: My Interest in Tigres855 Words   |  3 Pagesrisking his life. As a matter of fact, for my first, second, and third birthdays my parents bought me a Winnie the Pooh theme cake. I wasn’t aware that several species of tigers were endangered until I started researching endangered species. As I was researching tigers, I came across the Sumatran tiger, an endangered tiger found only on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. One threat this tiger is facing is habitat loss due to logging, mainly from the palm oil industry. Another threat is poachers huntingRead MoreA Picture Of A Dead Bird1006 Words   |  5 PagesThis advertisement was produced by the Endangered Wildlife Trust, the advertisement has many points of ethos examples. The Endangered Wildlife Trust is a nonprofit organization that helps save animals from getting hurt in their actual environment. Any endangered animal on the multiple pages of the endangered wildlife will be caught to reproduce and provide a safe non endangered habitat for the animal. They show the different ways that people hurt these endangered animals and the ways to correct theseRead More Wildlife Preservation Essay examples923 Words   |  4 PagesWildlife Preservation You hear about it all the time, and you read bout it in newspapers and magazines on how some nearby wildlife habitat is going to be torn up by an army of machinery and turned into a Super Wall Mart with a parking lot that’s big enough to fit five thousand cars. Is this really necessary? Is there a need to take every last bit of our wildlife at the expense of our capitalist society? It seems that humanity’s interactions with wildlife has been based on ignorance and theRead MoreAnimals Back Into The Wild1671 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract The release of animals back into the wild plays a substantial role in the welfare of them and in the conservation of endangered species. Despite the importance in the welfare and conservation, another reason to release wild animals is the scientific purpose considerations, such as monitoring diseases, and environmental problems. The factors that should be considered in a releasing process are divided in six areas: the ability of the animals to acquire and process food, ability to avoidRead MoreManatees, The Gentle Giant Is Going Extinct Essays1110 Words   |  5 Pagesgrass and surface regularly to breathe. They reside in sea grass beds and in mangroves that provide them with shelter. The West Indian Manatee is listed as vulnerable under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and may eventually be listed as endangered. They are at a huge risk of decline due to coastal development and other changes to the environment (Auil). Manatees are facing countless risks and deaths as the hu man population increases in varying locations. According to the National GeographicRead MoreResponsible Stewardship Of Wild And Marine Life1508 Words   |  7 Pagesgiven into thine hand, and hath made thee ruler over them all†. Daniel 2:38 The above mentioned scripture from the Holy Bible may be interpreted in many ways, but in regards to stewardship, it displays God’s overwhelming trust in mankind to protect and preserve the wildlife that he created. Even so, stewardship should not be taken lightly. It is a privilege bestowed upon mankind that not only embellishes God’s plan to protect what he created but it also gives mankind a moral and ethical responsibilityRead More Golden Lion Tamarin Reintroduction Program Essay1026 Words   |  5 Pagesdestroying the delicate web and irreparably damaging ourselves as well. We cut down entire jungles into grazing land, irrigate vast deserts into golf courses, seal up marshes for business offices, dump toxic waste in the oceans. Since the passage of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, many animal and plant populations have been brought back from the brink of extinction. But many more have been lost and there are still nearly a thousand names on the list, and tha t is even an understatement of the true dangerRead MoreThe Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse1633 Words   |  7 PagesThe salt marsh harvest mouse is listed as an endangered species in 1970s. Its phylogeny is of the Kingdom Animalia, the Phylum Chordata, the Class Mammalia, the Order Rodentia, the Family Cricetidae, the Genus Reithrodontomys, and the Species raviventris. The closest living relative of the salt marsh harvest mouse, according to genetic mapping, is the plains harvest mouse, R. montanus, a western interior species that are found in Mexico and central US. Within the species of R. raviventris there

Palliser analysis Free Essays

International University Vietnam Bachelor of Commerce Program Assignment Cover Page Question: Companies internationalist for a variety of reasons and in a variety of ways. Discuss a major issue that a company will face while internationalization and how it may manage this challenge. Use examples from real companies to illustrate your points. We will write a custom essay sample on Palliser analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Essay: In the world, many companies want to internationalist to expand or find a potential market but they must face many issues, such as red tape, language and cross culture. This essay will analyze a major issue of lacking control in quality of products ND capacity of employees of Coca-cola when they internationalization and how the firms solved this problem. According to Bartlett and Shoal model, Coca-Cola chooses global strategies because they need to reduce the cost of production and it also becomes a reason why they internationalist. Additionally, Coca-cola entry into China because of three advantages of Dunning motive model. Firstly, Coca-Cola has their own pattern and strong brand image, so they can compete with local companies easily (Lily et al 2013). In addition, Lily et al (2013) states that they also have location advantages of low labor cost, the significant domestic market and high economic growth of China. Finally, this internationalization advantages is that they have the agreement with big food company in China (Lily et al 2013). The problem of lacking control affect mostly to the Coca-cola when they can improve the quality and also manage the employees. Therefore, the plan to expand the market can be influenced and it also can decrease the reputation of the company. The main issue is that it can reduce the sale volumes, so the profit can be decreased significantly because China s the potential market with large population. Coca-cola make a decisions to become a FED company to solve the issue and they apply Pascal model and entry mode to entry in to China to clearly show each step they done carefully which depend on the China’ situations. For the first step, they export their products to China and then, they sign a franchise contract with a Chinese bottling partner in 1979 when Chinese government apply tight regulations (Lily et al Addax Consulting 2013). Secondly, Lily et al (2013) points out that in 1985, they invest money in a Chinese firm to make this come a Joint venture firm and in 1993 they built their own subsidiary to become a FED firm when Chinese government had changed their policies to attract more FED. According to the Coca-Cola Company (n. D), the company established bottling operations in France, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Belgium, Italy, Peru, Spain, Australia, Philippines and South Africa from 1920 to 1930. COMIC (n. D) claims that two bottling plants were establish in China and the bottles were imported from the plants in Philippines. Coca-Cola depends on these two models to improve their power n term of control quality of product and capacity of employees. From an exporter to become a Joint venture, they can control a part and then, they can control all when they building their own factories. They show clearly their wants for develop in the China’s market. How to cite Palliser analysis, Papers

Goya Essay Example For Students

Goya Essay His name, Francisco Goya, born in 1746, one of Spains most innovative painters and etchers; also one of the triumvirateincluding El Greco and Diego Velzquezof great Spanish masters. Much in the art of Goya is derived from that of Velzquez, just as much in the art of the 19th-century French master douard Manet and the 20th-century genius Pablo Picasso is taken from Goya. Trained in a mediocre rococo artistic milieu , Goya transformed this often frivolous style and created works, such as the famous The third of May, 1808, that have as great an impact today as when they were created Goya was born in the small Aragonese town of Fuendetodos (near Zaragoza) on March 30, 1746. His father was a painter and a gilder of altarpieces, and his mother was descended from a family of minor Aragonese nobility. Facts of Goyas childhood are scarce. He attended school in Zaragoza at the Escuelas Pias. Goyas formal artistic education commenced when, at the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a local master, Jos Luzan, a competent although little-known painter in whose studio Goya spent four years. In 1763 the young artist went to Madrid, where he hoped to win a prize at the Academy of San Fernando. Although he did not win the desired award, he did make the acquaintance of Francisco Bayeu, an artist also from Aragn, who was working at the court in the academic manner imported to Spain by the German painter Anton Raphael Mengs. Bayeu (the brother of Goyas wife) was influential in forming Goyas early style and was responsible for his participation in an important commission, the fresco decoration of the Church of the Virgin in El Pilar in Zaragoza. In 1771 Goya went to Italy for approximately one year. His activity there is relatively obscure; he spent some months in Rome and also entered a composition at the Parma Academy competition, in which he was successful. Returning to Spain about 1773, Goya participated in several other fresco projects, including that for the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, near Zaragoza, in 1774, where his paintings prefigure those of his greatest fresco project, executed in the Church of San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid, in 1798. It was at this time that Goya began to do prints after paintings by Velzquez, who would remain, along with Rembrandt, his greatest source of inspiration. By 1786 Goya was working in an official capacity for King Charles III, the most enlightened Spanish monarch of the 18th century. Goya was appointed first court painter in 1799. His tapestry cartoons executed in the late 1780s and early 1790s were highly praised for their candid views of everyday Spanish life. With these cartoons Goya revolutionized the tapestry industry, which, until that time, had slavishly reproduced the Flemish genre scenes of the 17th-century painter David Teniers. Some of Goyas most beautiful portraits of his friends, members of the court, and the nobility date from the 1780s. Works such as Marquesa de Pontejos show that Goya was then painting in an elegant manner somewhat reminiscent of the style of his English contemporary Thomas Gainsborough.

Animal Farm Summary Essays - British Films, Cold War Films

Animal Farm Summary Animal Farm Summary The book starts in the barnyard of Mr. Jones' "Manor Farm". The animals gather at a meeting led by the white boar, Major. Major shows them that no animal in England is free. He also explains that the stuff that they produce is taken by man and the animals do not benefit. The only thing that man gives is food to survive so more money can be made off of the animals. Majors lets them know that man is the source of all problems and should be eliminated. He proposes that all of the animals should avoid man's habits. Above all Major says to the animals that they cannot kill one another, that they are all equal. A few days later Major dies, but his message remains in the hearts and minds of the animals. Under the leadership of the pigs, who are clearly the more intelligent of the animals, they strike against their human master and manage to get rid of him. After the rebellion, under the direction of Napoleon, the most outspoken pig, and Snowball, the most articulate pig, the animals continue to work the farm with success. The animals now come up with a set of rules to run their society. They are labeled "the Seven Commandments of Animalism" and are posted on the barn wall. 1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings is a friend. 3. No animal shall wear clothes. 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed 5. No animal shall drink alcohol 6. No animal shall kill any other animal. 7. All animals are equal The animals succeed at running the farm for a little while. They finish all of their work with stunning efficiency and every week hold ceremonies to celebrate the rebellion and to plan work. Meanwhile, the pigs as leaders are taking bigger food rations for themselves justifying their behavior as something necessary for the "brains" of their animal society. They explain that it is necessary or else the farmers might come back and take over the farm. The farmers do try to reclaim their tries to reclaim his power but the animals prevent him from doing so in what they call "The Battle of the Cowshed". The conflict between Napoleon and Snowball gets more intense. At every meeting they can never agree on what needs to be done. Napoleon and Snowball fight over whether or not a windmill should be built. Snowball has proposed this idea and Napoleon is, of course, against it. After the battle, Napoleon drives Snowball off the farm telling everyone that Snowball was on Mr. Jones' side. Napoleon is seen as a great leader by the animals because he had the wisdom to remove the traitor. Slowly, Napoleon gets a stronger and stronger hold over the other animals, dominating their every action. The situation at "Animal Farm", the new name for "Manor Farm", really starts to change now. Napoleon moves into Mr. Jones' house, sleeps in his bed, and even wears his clothes. These things were, of course, against the seven commandments but Napoleon found a way to interpret them as legal. In defiance of the original laws, Napoleon befriends Mr. Pilkington, the human owner of a nearby farm. Napoleon maintained an unbelievable amount of control over the animals as demonstrated by their acceptance of this relation to a man. In fact, almost every commandment is violated and then changed. After winning a battle against Mr. Frederick and his men the pigs have a drinking party and change the commandment to " thou shall not drink to excess." The pigs are using all of the resources and giving none to the other animals. The other animals are struggling to build the schoolhouse and the windmill while the pigs wear clothes, eat and drink. While working ferociously, Boxer collapses and Napoleon announces that he will be taken to the hospital. But when the truck arrives the animals realize that he is going to a horse slaughter house. But it's too late. A few years go by and the difference between man and pig is not noticeable to the other animals. The book ends with the pigs walking around on to legs in clothes and conversing with men. The only thing left out of the Seven Commandments is " All animals are equal. But some are more equal than others"

Defining terrorism essays

Defining terrorism essays One tends to hear the word terrorism and his heart pounding increases. Ever wondered why? Nowadays, terrorism is a great issue. Every nation is trying to find ways to eliminate such inhumane acts. So what is terrorism and what makes people so afraid of it? Upon following up on news through the television, one will see many ways to how terrorism will occur, also the terrorists them selves they look different according to their cause. One will see terrorists who take hostage members of governors, usually folks of higher status, those ones they're usually just dispirited patriots or just a poor gang that went mad and decided to kidnap the president's daughter, most probably they tend to do brainless mistakes that get them caught. One will also find terrorists who hijack planes for example. This kind they usually have a leader who is sort of a whiz kid and has everything sorted out. Another kind of terrorists, are tight religious men who got the whole idea of religion messed up somehow and just go on killing others who dont seem to be following religion the "right" way. Now the kind we have today, or maybe just the most popular, are the ones we see hiding in a cave somewhere in the desert, running around in their night garments with nothing but a machine gun in their hands, oppressed by the unfairness and cruelty of invaders, out to kill any foreign non-just trespasser to their homeland. True, they are only defending their country but they never thought of all the innocent lives they killed in a non-result ending act. All kinds of terrorism however lead to one thing, and this is the reason behind the heart pounding, blood shedding. Whatever authorities will do there will always be spared innocent lives. Like a dark cloud that falls over a flourished garden and pouring rain till all the greenery drowns and dies. Terrorism is a mindless act of unfairness and cruelty. It is the snow that blocks your front door. It...

The Internment of and Assimilation of Japanese-American Research Paper

The Internment of and Assimilation of Japanese-American - Research Paper Example This discussion stresses that Japanese-American were forced to move to camp and lived there for almost three years. During the internment, Japanese-Americans’ lives were changed. â€Å"the residents faced problems of housing, food, employments, medical care, education, internal security, and religious worship''. Japanese-American had to give up their own culture and started to accept American culture and lifestyle. Although the internment brought a great deal of negative effects for Japanese-American and let them give up a lot of things, the experience of the internment was the turning point of the development and survival of Japanese-American.A the paper highlights  the experience of internment had an impact on Japanese-Americans’ cultural assimilation. When Japanese-American were forced to move to camps, the life that they established carefully was broken. They had to abandon Japanese traditional culture. Before Japanese-American moved into camps, they only had a f ew days to pick up their things and most of them had to give up their property.   In order to prevent from being suspected, they gave up anything that related to Japan, such as letters from Japanese family members, Japanese books, Japanese records and so on. This action let Japanese-American broke all connection with Japan or with their family members who still lived in Japan. In the camps, the living environment was simple and crude.  

OPERATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICE WEEK COURSE WORK Assignment

OPERATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICE WEEK COURSE WORK - Assignment Example ccording to the Office for National Statistics, Bedford Borough Council has a population of about 160,000 as at the year 2012 with about 65,500 households, which include 28.5% who are non-White British. The unemployment rate stands at 3.0 % or a number of about 3100 as at December 2013. In terms of the well-being and the health of the citizens of Bedford, the determinants of health is divided into different determinants such as starting well, developing well, living and working well, ageing well as well as population and place. This project work will look at different demographic that concern the improvement of Bedford Borough Council’s healthcare system and how it affects the general welfare of the community as a whole (Bedford Borough Council, 2014). It agrees now that health plays an important role in determining the well-being of individuals especially those with little or no means of earning. At Bedford, the number of people seeking out of work benefits currently stand at about eleven thousand which represents 10.5% of the working age population (Bisen & Srivastava, 2009).  There are also concerns that the healthcare benefits and services do not reach the most deserve or vulnerable members of the Bedford community especially those with caring responsibilities, illnesses that limit work as well as persons living with disability. Bedford Borough Council also has structural and institutional problems that prevent or hinder the promotion and provision of quality healthcare services to the citizens Bedford Borough Council, 2014). It is important that before any investment is made in the healthcare of Bedford Borough Council is made a robust and viable business case is made that outlines the costs, benefits and risks related to the provision of healthcare, and makes the case for investment in it. The level of detail required for the business case depends on the magnitude of investment required and the local organization policies regarding business cases, which

Explanation of Security Breach and Request for Formal Apology Essay

Explanation of Security Breach and Request for Formal Apology - Essay Example A month ago, the lock manufacturer sent me an email to warn me of the possibility that the lock could malfunction and to schedule for a technician to come and fix the lock’s firmware. No further queries were made on this issue following the current measures on cost-cutting, and the fact that the Head of Security was dismissed six weeks ago. I apologize for not informing you of the problem with the system on time. I am heavily involved in planning for the launch of the Bionic Leg event, a project that is critical to the company’s ongoing success, and that is why I have not had time to resolve the issue. Linda is an important employee to our company because she is the most knowledgeable person in Canada in the field of bionics. Bob Loblaw is the only other person in the company who possesses similar expertise. Since they work together, there is a chance that if Linda were to leave then Bob would also leave. This would be a great loss for the company. Without the service o f these two key employees, the Bionics Division would be forced to close. In the last three years, the company has been surviving on the revenues generated from the Bionics Division. Furthermore, we risk losing Linda to our main competitor, Bionic Works Co., which has been trying to poach her from us for quite some time. Her decision to stay is based on her loyalty to my leadership and because she enjoys working with our team. To prevent Linda from leaving the company, we need to compromise company policy and fulfill her terms.

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory As a reaction to the introspective analysis method in psychology and the focus on the study of mental processes, conscious or unconscious that dominated the beginning of the last century and was considered the object of psychology at that time  [1]  , a new approach was developed under the name of behaviorism. This new psychotherapeutic approach was to dominate psychology for about 50 years. Precursors of this approach are the American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike  [2]  and the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov  [3]  , but the one who is considered the father of behaviorism and established its theoretical and practical fundaments is John Watson  [4]  . Behavior becomes the focus of psychological investigation because it is the only one that can be scientifically studied and quantified, predicted and controlled. The behaviorist assumptions are that: psychology should be seen as a science and therefore it should deal with observable behaviors that generate empirical data; the environment plays a decisive role in determining behavior as opposed to the psychic inner processes; all behavior is learnt from environment and this learning process is similar to animals. In contrast with the vague concepts used by introspectionism, behaviorism places a high emphasis on the use of operational definitions that is defining various concepts in terms of observable events that may be used to describe human experience in terms of stimuli and responses. A specific characteristic of behaviorism is parsimony seeking the simplest possible explanation for any event  [5]  . Key concepts of behaviorism comprise the stimulus response (S-R) equation, the classical and operant conditioning, and the reinforcement and punishment notions. The method used to analyze behavior is the lab experiment which gave the possibility to manipulate the independent variable in order to study the dependent variable. Stimulus is a measurable change in the environment any object, fact, event or situation that may have an impact on behavior, while response is a measurable change in behavior any reaction to a stimulus either environmental or mental. The behaviorist theory excludes thoughts, feelings and other mental occurrences, and genetic factors as well, that is everything that cannot be study objectively, in observable terms. Watson took further Pavlovs idea of conditioning  [6]  and applied it to humans. According to him humans are born tabula rasa and the behavior is simply learnt from the environment through a process of conditioning. In a famous and controversial experiment because of its ethical implications, Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned Little Albert an 18-months old toddler to develop a fear response to rats, by associating the rat NS with a strong noise UCS. They conducted their research following the classical conditioning scheme: Noise (UCS) Anxiety (UCR); Noise (UCS) + Rat (NS) Anxiety (UCR); Rat (CS) Anxiety (CR)  [7]  . Close related to the process of classical conditioning is the generalization that occurs. Thus, stimuli similar to the original CS would tend to elicit the same CR. In the case of Little Albert it was reported that the boy was showing strong signs of anxiety to all fluffy objects, which were similar to the white rat used in experiment. Stimulus generalization results in responding to a whole class of related stimuli, after initial learning with a single stimulus and can enable organisms to adapt better to their environment though it may not always be adaptive  [8]  . Behaviorists draw the conclusion that generalization is the first response of an organism when encountering new situations. Sometimes this generalization may take the form of stereotyping that occurs when generalizing based on group membership. To fight this phenomenon, behaviorists undertook and exemplified through research the concept of stimulus discrimination  [9]  , according to which an organism may be tr ained to discriminate between two or more stimuli that progressively increase in alikeness. As Glassman and Haddad point out stimulus discrimination always requires training in the absence of such training, organisms tend to generalize (emphasis theirs)  [10]  . Opposed to the concept of conditioning is the concept of extinction which suggests that what can be learned can also be unlearned, and that a conditional response is not necessarily permanent  [11]  . However, as some research indicate  [12]  , extinction is likely to appear in humans in some basic behaviors involving muscle responses like withdrawing from a hot surface, but not in complex behaviors which involve fear responses or other responses of the automatic nervous system and which are very hard to extinguish. Using Pavlovs extinction procedure, Watson and Rayner tried to eliminate the conditioned fear response associated with rats in Little Alberts case by presenting the rat for a period of three weeks w ithout associating it with the gongs noise. Contrary to their expectation the fear did not extinguish. Stimulus generalization and discrimination concepts as well as the extinction principle have a great importance for our discussion because they will be used in the process of developing behavioral psychotherapeutic techniques. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. He argues that all behavior is modeled by complex reinforcement patterns from the environment. In his view, humans and animals actively engage with their environment, as opposed to the Watsonian emphasis on classical conditioning where they are more passive waiting for the environment to produce stimuli to which they may respond to. Skinners main idea is that human behavior is determined by the consequences of its past behavior. If from a Watsonian perspective the behavior is triggered by external stimuli, starting with Skinner the behavior may be elicited by internal stimuli as well, as a result of past internalized experiences. Thus operant conditioning is a type of learning where future behavior is determined by the consequences of past behavior. According to Skinner the past behavior may influence feature behavior depending on three types of consequences: if it had no consequence, the probability of that behavior to occur in the future is neuter; if the consequence is found pleasant, then the behavior is likely to be repeated in the future this was called positive reinforcement; if the consequence is negative, then it acts as a punishment and makes that specific behavior unlikely to appear in the future. By extrapolation, learning occurs through manipulation of positive reinforcements and punishments. Newer behaviorist approaches acknowledge that although the two types of conditioning reflex and operant were developed independent of each other by different researchers, they are interconnected and in real life situations both processes can occur simultaneously  [13]  . Practice therapeutic process and methods The behavior therapeutic approach emerged from these behavioral principles of classical and operant conditioning. All behavior is learnt and therefore abnormal behavior is seen as the result of faulty learning. In order to cure the individual needs to learn the correct behavior. The behavioral therapy applying the principle of here and now focuses on the present behavior which the patient finds problematic as opposed to the psychodynamic therapy that focuses on identifying and uncovering unconscious conflicts from childhood. The therapist sees the patient as standing at the intersection between genetic inheritance and learning that occurred through interaction between individual and environmental stimuli. These result in maladaptive thoughts, feelings, attitudes and verbal behavior. Conventionally, the psychotherapeutic process starts by behavior analysis  [14]  . The focus is on indentifying the current stimulus response relationship. Based on the disruptive behaviors identified the therapist designs a program (the psychotherapeutic process) meant to help the patient unlearn the faulty responses and if appropriate learn more adaptive behaviors. The patient is explained how the psychotherapy works, how the conditioned responses were learnt somewhere in the past and how the very same behavioral responses can be modified using the techniques of behavioral therapy. According to Bennet, behavior therapy differs from psychoanalytic therapies in the following regards: it is directive, the therapist actively involves in the therapeutic process, using methods based on learning principles; the goal of therapy is different in that it intends to change behavior not to reconstruct personality; the therapy is shorter than other forms; the interventions are symptom specific, closer to the medical model of intervention rather than the psychoanalytic catharsis or insight  [15]  . Behavioral techniques emerged from the classical conditioning principle involve systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy, implosion therapy and flooding. Operant conditioning techniques are related to what is commonly known in therapy as behavior modification, behavior shaping and token economy. Systematic desensitization is the treatment of choice for phobias and various anxiety inducing behaviors. It aims at replacing the patients anxiety response with a relaxation one, by increasingly exposing the patient to a hierarchy of stimuli from the less anxiety evoking to the anxiety evoking stimulus itself. During the process, the patient goes to the next stage of the stimulus hierarchy only after succeeding to be fully relaxed in the present of the previous stimulus. This method requires the training of the patient in relaxation techniques  [16]  and involves the use of imagination, since when is impossible to be confronted with the actual situation (like is the case in social p hobias) the patient has to imagine being in those situations, following that life itself will offer opportunities to see if the therapy is successful or not. So, the exposure can be done in vitro or in vivo, depending on the phobic stimulus. However, studies have emphasized that the important factor in curing is the exposure to the feared object or situation by breaking the avoidance cycle created and reinforced in any phobia. Aversion therapy is used to induce an aversive response to stimuli which are associated with existing undesirable behaviors. It has been used in trying to treat alcoholic addiction, by associating a nausea producing drug or a small electric shock with the undesired behavior of drinking. As a result of this stimuli association, the patient is provoked to vomit. This supposedly might determine the patient avoid drinking in the future. However, this method raises serious ethical and effectiveness problems, the rates of relapse being reportedly very high. Implosion therapy and flooding involve that the patient has to face the worst possible fear producing situation, in imagination only in the former and in the physical context in the latter. In contrast with systematic desensitization which presupposes a gradual exposure to the stimuli, these techniques are more radical and less time consuming. If successful, the patient might be cured of a phobia in one hour. The advantage of this method is that the patient learns that there are no objective bases for his/her fear by accepting to openly confront it. Ethical problems are associated as well in regard to suffering from therapy. Derived from operant conditioning, the behavior modification method is largely used in educational and clinical psychology contexts. It reinforces desired behaviors and ignores or punishes undesired ones. This techniques raises problems in choosing reinforcers since people can potentially respond to a wide range of such stimuli. Similar to behavior modification is the behavior shaping technique successfully used in working with autistic children in order to maintain a desired behavior. Another operant application has been used in institutions (for examples schools and hospitals) within the programs called token economies, where conditioned reinforcers are offered to strengthen specific behaviors. Tokens are offered in exchange of a desired behavior and can later be transformed in something that the individual wants. Token behave as a secondary reinforcement for the primary reinforcements which are in fact desired. It may be also used to extinguish undesired behaviors by taking away t he earned tokens to punish undesired behavior. Taken economies are uncommon and inefficient in treating mental disorders, although they might contribute to alleviating some disruptive behaviors associated with mental disorders, such as aggressiveness, inadequate social interaction and use of bad language  [17]  . Evaluation of the approach strengths and limits One of the major strengths of this approach is questionably considered its scientific background. Developed from lab experiments on animals (Pavlov-dogs, Thorndike cats, Watson rats, Skinner pigeons and rats) it focuses exclusively on behavior which can be observed and objectively measured. The behaviorist human being is concrete, realistic, determined in its actions by the environment and the society that he/she lives in. This theoretical approach proved to be productive in creating psychotherapeutic methods, mainly successful in the area of phobias and addictions. Compared to other approaches behaviorism is supported by many experiments. However, there are discrepancies between the empirical and the theoretical developments in behaviorism, which is considered a limitation of the approach. Initial empirical studies were made on animals (as mentioned above) while the theoretical studies are done by generalizing observations made on animals upon humans. This fact cumulated with the declared behaviorists rejection of the importance of mental processes offers a very fragmented and simplistic view of human being. Watson believed that observing and describing behavior is enough to predict and control it. Thus, he eliminated explanation from psychology. Psychic life was acknowledged but its understanding was not considered necessary because it will finally manifest itself at behavioral level. At this point we need to reconsider what meaning we give to the term scientific, in regard to our double perspective taken by the present work. If scientific means that positive methods in studying human being (similar to the study of rocks, animals, meteorological phenomena etc.) are favored, then we might as well consider this psychological approach a step forward on the terrain of positive science. But if scientific means to conceptualize the human being in all its wholeness in order to understand its starting point, its inner resorts and teleological direction, then behaviorism might be seen as an unacceptable lessening of the complexity and mystery of human being. The intense use of lab experiments present the disadvantage of a low ecological validity  [18]  . In time it became obvious that understanding of behavior cannot come from the laboratory. On the other hand behaviorism was criticized as being reductionist by eliminating the meditational processes and too deterministic by the fact that human being is presented as not possessing free will. Another weakness identified by ethnological studies show that the principles of conditioning are not as universal as was once asserted  [19]  . However, maybe the most informed criticism is provided from within, by a behavior therapist like Lazarus connected with Joseph Wolpe, who states in regard to behavior therapy that: the methods of behavior therapy are extremely effective when applied to carefully selected cases by informed practitioners. But when procedures overstep the boundaries of their legitimate terrain, ridicule and disparagement are most likely to ensue. Far from being a panacea, the methods are then held to have no merit whatsoever, and the proverbial baby gets thrown out with the bath waterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The danger lies in a premature elevation of learning principles into unwarranted scientific truths  [20]  . Comparison with psychodynamic perspective Within the behaviorist approach various theorists hold positions that may vary in some degrees but fundamentally assert the same thing: behavior is the new found object of psychology; this allows psychology to behave and to be considered a natural science; a belief that its legitimate to study the animal behavior and compare it with human behavior; the emphasis on environment as causation of behavior and consequently dismiss mental processes. The psychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives on human being are opposed. They started from very different points in defining what human being is. Furthermore, the behaviorism appeared as a reaction to psychoanalysis and other currents in psychology that used the method of introspection to define and explain the inner, immaterial and unseen mental processes. Their approach was considered by behaviorists as mysticism. The focus in psychodynamic theories and practice is on inner processes that are seen as motivating and influencing behavior, while the focus in behaviorist theories and practice is on the outer world, i.e. environment that is seen as determining behavior. The change in psychoanalysis comes by uncovering unconscious conflicts that are the underlying causes of behavior, while the change in behaviorism comes by manipulating the environment in order to remove undesirable behavior. These opposing perspectives do not completely eliminate dialogue since the unification point i s the human being itself. For example, if a Freudian theorist suggests that adult behavior can best be understood by looking at childhood experiences, Skinner agrees but suggests that the connections are based on the reinforcement history of the person, not some vague concept of conflicts between id and ego  [21]  . In the Freudian understanding of human nature, the person is born with instincts, hence the development of the drive and unconscious psychology, as opposed to the Watsonian perspective where humans are born tabula rasa. The behaviorist theorist Skinner describes the inner life as a black box. He acknowledges its existence but he sees it in behaviorist terms. For him the private inner life is also behavior  [22]  . However, in the view of the major differences presented above we are enabled to draw the conclusion that psychoanalysis and behaviorism have as a starting point different assumptions concerning human nature and therefore, develop at the conceptual- the oretical and practical-therapeutic level towards two distinct finalities. This point is very well made clear by Watson in one of his famous quotes: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant -chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for thousands of years  [23]  . Contributions to new developments Despite all its limitations, the behaviorist approach has some positive points as well: provided psychology with new and quantifiable concepts, opened the gate to new theories and explanations in psychology, crated more realistic methods. Somehow ironically, one of the major contributions made by behaviorism concerns the possibilities of research opened towards the investigation of cognitive processes that they initially rejected, which will fundament the new cognitive approach in psychology. For example, Edward Tolman, regarded as one of the founders of the cognitive approach, considered himself a behaviorist though not a radical behaviorist like Skinner. In addition, the study of many cognitive issues, such as observational learning imitation) and the use of hypotheses in problem solving, began with similar behaviorist studies of animals. Where the introspectionists failed in their attempts to make sense out of mental processes the behaviorists have pointed the way to new possibil ities for a scientific psychology of the mind  [24]  . Neobehaviorism introduces the meditational processes (motive, emotion) between stimuli and response.

Stories and a White Man: An Open Letter to My Navaho Students :: Essays Papers

Stories and a White Man: An Open Letter to My Navaho Students Some of your Elders encourage you to leave the university and return to the reservation. They tell you that the university is not for you. I respect your Elders because I understand that they wish the best for you, but I cannot agree with them. Come here. Let's share a place together, here on this page, as real as Second Mesa where the wind makes its own stories and all of us must listen to the language of Crow in order to find our way home. Right now let's share a place where we wait trustingly and where storytellers are never victims because they have their stories to protect them. Let our moment together be a home of stories, and let us agree to live in a world where such a place as this one exists. My Uncle Mace was Native American. I'm not sure what nation he came from, but I understand it was one of those "civilized" tribes because unlike the Apache they did not tell jokes that ended with "White men are stupid." So White men called them "civilized." Uncle Mace told me stories. He would start with, "Now, everything I tell you is true." Then he would tell me something confusing and crazy and wonderful, something about bears or ants or giants. Some of his favorite stories were about a race of great ones who were men but did things men could not do. Anyway, I believed they were true stories, and I have to admit that I probably still do. There's a place in me where Uncle Mace still lives. My great grandfather used to take me along when he went to visit sick animals. He was a homemade veterinarian, and the farmers loved him because they never got around to paying him. His specialty was to cure bloated cattle. He would walk up beside the animal and stick a knife into its belly. Anyway, he always drank whisky as we drove along, and he always made up songs. He had a voice filtered through gravel and tar, but the songs were stories, and I believed them like the stories of my Uncle Mace. One song went something like this: When I was a young man I had long green pants. I wore them all day but they were full of ants. Sometimes at night I would wonder how he was able to get along with his green-ant pants.